Definitions - Table

EUROSTAT data for the years from 1991 onwards refer to the whole of the Federal Republic including the "New Länder" and East Berlin . From 1955 to 1964, the heading "Grassland" (C 2721) included rich, good and mediocre pastures; from 1965 to 1969 it also included high-yield mountain pastures; as from 1970 it comprises pastures and all mountain pastures. From 1955 to 1964 the heading "common pasture, heathland, rough grazing" (C 2722) included pastures and "hutungen" (rough grazing), mountain grazing and unused grassland. From 1965 to 1969 it included "streuwiesen" (meadows used for litter, which is normally partly eaten), "hutungen" and low-yield mountain grazings; as from 1970 it only comprised "streuwiesen" and "hutungen" (EUROSTAT, 2001).

Description and Ecology

From the North and Baltic Seas to the Alps in the south, the Federal Republic of Germany is divided geographically into three main areas:

• the North German Lowland
• the Central Upland Range and the Southwest German Central Upland Scarps
• the foothills of the Alps (South German Alpine Foreland) and Bavarian Alps

The North German Plain is a western extension of the East European Plain. Its structure varies from hilly blocks of clay and sandy terrain (geest), covered by many lakes and interspersed in the northwest with heaths and moors, to wide and damp depressions and ice-margin stream trenches. Fertile loess areas (Börden) stretch along the foothills of the Central Upland Range into which lowland basins (the Lower Rhenish Basin , the Westphalian Basin and the Saxon-Thuringian Basin ) with favourable climatic conditions penetrate far southwards. In the north of the plain, the territory extends into the marshes along the North Sea coast which reach up to the edge of the geest. The Baltic Sea coast is cut deeply in the west by long narrow sea inlets (Förden) while in the east its shape is characterised by lagoon-like sea inlets and a counterbalancing coastline.

The Central Upland Range divides northern Germany from the south, rising up to 1142 m with the Harz Mountains . The Southwest German Central Upland Scarps embrace the upper Rhine valley.

The broad South-German Alpine Foreland rises to an average altitude of 500 m. The Alpine region of Germany between Lake Constance and Salzburg embraces only a narrow portion of these mountains. The distinctive pre-Alpine belt of sandstone hills with many alpine pastures merges into the mountain chains which are part of the Outer Limestone Alps.

Germany 's climate is determined by its location in a cool and temperate climatic zone with frequent weather fluctuations. There is precipitation year round. Progressing from the northwest to the east and southeast, the maritime climate gradually changes into a more continental climate. However, neither the daily variations of temperatures nor the seasonal ones go to extremes anywhere. The annual mean temperature is around 9°C. In the North German Lowland annual rainfall ranges between 500 and 700 mm, in the Central Uplands from 700 to more than 1,500 mm and in the Alps, up to and exceeding 2,000 mm. In the lowlands, average temperatures for January vary from -1.5°C to +1.5°C and in the mountains, depending on altitude, -6°C and below. Mean temperatures in July are approximately 17°C in the North German Lowland, and up to +20°C in the Upper Rhine 's rift valley. In the mountains, temperatures continuously decrease with increasing sea level.

From a hydrographical point of view, the south of Germany is part of the catchment area of the Danube . Except for the areas in the north and northeast of the Mecklenburg Lake Plateau which belong to the Baltic Sea's catchment area, all other landscapes are drained by the Rhine, Ems, Weser and Elbe rivers into the North Sea (FSOG, 2002).

There are many diverse soils in Germany . The soil types brown earth, podzol and leached brown earth are widespread. Additionally, in the North German Lowland there are black earth, marshland and moorland, in the mountains there are shallow soils such as ranker and rendzina. There are alluvial and gley soils by the riversides (German National Report, undated).

The vegetation period (mean daily temperature above 10°C) lasts 150-180 days in the lowlands (in the Upper Rhine's rift valley even longer) and 120-160 days in the mountainous regions (at higher altitudes the period can be considerably shorter). Due to the duration of the vegetation period of approximately 5 to 6 months, most of the agricultural and horticultural crops can be harvested once a year only. Exceptions are fodder crops that can be cut several times, and fast-growing species of field vegetables. All kinds of land use and cultivation systems benefit from the lack of pronounced dry seasons (German National Report, undated).

Permanent grasslands cover about 5 million hectares, equivalent to 14% of the total land area. Broadly, two types of location may be distinguished for grassland:

• on the most productive sites in lowland areas (north-west) where fertilisation and irrigation are applied and Lolium perenne is the dominant species
• on low productivity sites in higher montane regions (subalpine area in the south, higher elevation and dry areas of montane chains), where extensive management is adopted and the number of species is higher (Kühbauch, 1992).

The actual appearance of grasslands (meadows, as well as pastures) in most regions is characterised by intensive agriculture. In marginal areas the mowing and grazing of grassland is increasingly being abandoned, whereas where suitable conditions exist the use of grasslands is ever more intensified. Because of the change of agriculture into systems of more intensive productivity, or because of abandonment of agriculture in regions disadvantaged for intensive agriculture, extensive grassland areas have seen a dramatic decline.

Land-use systems with considerable areas of extensive pastures and thus low intensity farming systems are still found, although on a small scale, often as a result of the remoteness and harsh environmental conditions and strong traditional values. These areas include the alpine pastures, common grazing in the southern part of the Black Forest, the lowlands of the Swabian and Franconian Jura, pastures in the Central-German-Hilland-Range (i.e. Eifel, Vogelsberg and Rhön), heaths in Northern Germany (i.e. Lüneburger Heath), lowland pastures along the Elbe-river and flooded salt marshes along the coast-line of the North and Baltic Seas (Luick R.,undated).

The main types of meadows and pastures of Southwest German Central Upland Scarps and of the foothills of the Alps (South German Alpine Foreland) and Bavarian Alps include (Arbeitshilfen für Naturschutz und Landschaftspflege, undated):

• Meadows for hay, often found on plains with poor/average nutrient soils, mostly calcareous, with a variable content of water up to waterlogged conditions; on sandy-stony and clay soils or peat soils. They are not fertilised and most of the species flower in late summer. Hay is cut late in the season and is used as stable feed. They are located in the Higher Bavaria, around Lake Constance and in the plain of the Higher Rhine. These meadows for hay belong to the association of the Molinietum. Main characteristic species include: Allium angulosum, Galium boreale, Galium uliginosum, Gentiana asclepiadea, Gentiana pneumonanthe, Molinia caerulea, Oenanthe lachenalii, Selinum carvifolia, Succisa pratensis.
• Humid meadows, on wet soils, along rivers or in sub-mountain areas with high rainfalls. Usually cut twice a year and also used for grazing. However, if precipitation is too high they may not be mowed. Located in the Black Forest , in the pre-alpine areas, in the Franconian-Bavarian forest and in the central plain of Higher Rhine, these meadows mainly belong to the associations Calthion and Juncion acutiflori. Main characteristic species include: Angelica sylvestris, Bromus racemosus, Caltha palustris, Carex acutiformis, Carex disticha, Carex gracilis, Crepis paludosa, Dactylorhiza majalis, Filipendula ulmaria, Hypericum tetrapterum, Juncus conglomeratus, Juncus inflexus, Lotus uliginosus, Lychnis flos-cuculi, Lysimachia vulgaris, Lythrum salicaria, Myosotis palustris, Polygonum bistorta, Sanguisorba officinalis, Stachys palustris. They are also distinguished on the basis of altitude (plain and mountain) and the soil pH.
• Flooded meadows, on compact, clay soils, subject to temporary flooding. Located in the plain of the Higher Rhine, in the pre-alpine zone, around Lake Constance and in the Donau valley. Main characteristic species include: Agrostis stolonifera, Alopecurus geniculatus, Alopecurus aequalis, Mentha longifolia, Mentha suaveolens, Juncus compressus, Potentilla reptans, Ranunculus repens, Potentilla anserina, Plantago intermedia, Elymus repens, Rumex crispus, Pulicaria dysenterica, Rorippa austriaca, Rorippa sylvestris.
• Meadows on agricultural land, located on moderately dry-moderately wet areas, fertilised or on naturally nutrient rich soils. Characterised by the presence of palatable species, they are cut once or more per year. May be found from the lowlands to the mountains, spread in the Black Forest , in the area of the Higher Rhine, in the Oden forest, in the pre-Alb and Baar areas. Dominant associations are Arrhenatherion e Polygonotrisetion. Main characteristic species include: Alopecurus pratensis, Anthriscus sylvestris, Arrhenatherum elatius, Helictotrichon pubescens, Campanula patula, Cardamine pratensis, Cerastium holosteoides, Crepis biennis, Festuca pratensis, Festuca rubra, Galium album, Geranium pratense, Heracleum sphondylium, Holcus lanatus, Knautia arvensis, Pimpinella major, Plantago lanceolata, Poa pratensis, Ranunculus acris, Rumex acetosa, Trifolium pratense, Tragopogon orientalis, Tragopogon pratensis, Trisetum flavescens, Veronica chamaedrys. May be mowed one, two or, although not frequently, three times a year. More frequently are cut 1-2 times and the second cut may be followed by grazing.
• Semi-natural pastures, characterised by low management levels and for this reason possibly subject to degradation. Besides the species found in the meadows on agricultural land, grazing-resistant species such as Bellis perennis, Cynosurus cristatus, Hypochoeris radicata, Leontodon autumnalis, Lolium perenne, Phleum pratense, Plantago medium, Poa annua, Prunella vulgaris, Ranunculus repens, Trifolium repens, Veronica serpyllifolia are present.
• Seeded pastures or intensively managed pastures. Poor in species due to the high number of cuts, intensive grazing or application of fertilisers. Main species include: Elymus repens, Alopecurus pratensis, Festuca pratensis, Phleum pratense, Poa trivialis, Taraxacum officinale, Lolium multiflorum, Lolium perenne, Trifolium pratense, Trifolium repens, Trifolium hybridum, Trifolium resupinatum, Bellis perennis, Cirsium arvense, Plantago major, Poa annua, Ranunculus repens, Rumex crispus, Rumex obtusifolius. If fertilised with manure the following species may occur: Aegopodium podagraria, Anthriscus sylvestris, Heracleum sphondylium.

In the altitudinal gradient of alpine ecosystems above the timberline, alpine grasslands found between 2400-3000 m a.s.l. are characterised by a long snow cover and a short vegetation period of only a few weeks, between June and September. Soils are shallow and nutrient-poor. These grasslands are only used as pasture for sheep and goats during the short summer period (Paulsch et al., 2003).

Area, Production and Yield

The total utilised agricultural area (UAA) is 17.1 million ha or 48% of the country's area: permanent grasslands cover 5.012.604 ha or 29% of the UAA (EUROSTAT, 1999).

 Since 1988 permanent grassland area decreased by 12%; in fact, over the same period meadows decreased by 28% while grazings increased by 3%.

Germany 's agricultural area has decreased by 11% over the past 30 years, mainly because of the decrease in permanent pastures. Agricultural area has mostly been converted to land in the "other" land use category, while afforestation has been marginal. Further to the unification and the introduction of the CAP into the ex-GDR, participation in the set-aside program was high, especially in eastern Germany where in 1994 an average of 14% of the agricultural land was set aside (Prieler et al. 1998)

Out of over 3 million of ha of grazings, 2.9 million are herbages.

Temporary grasses and grazings decreased by 54% over the last 15 years, the real drop occurring in 1991 following the unification of the country.

Yields of temporary grasses and grazings remained relatively stable since 1988 while permanent grassland yields increased; meadows yields averaged 7.7 t/ha in 1990 and 8.2 t/ha in 2001, grazings yielded 4.3 t/ha in 1991 and 6.0 t/ha in 2001.

Outputs of 9500 kg DM/ha are attainable in the Donau-Isar hilly area with a nitrogen input of 260 kh/ha. In Bavaria , stocking rates of 2.3 cows/ha are sustainable on farms producing 16 t DM/ha. In 1981, in the former GDR, 0.6 million ha out of a total grassland area of 1.4 m ha were meadows with an average productivity of 3270 kg DM/ha (Lee, 1982).

Green fodder on arable land decreased by 28% since 1990; perennial green fodder area decreased by 54% and lucerne by 83% over the period 1988-2001. In 2002 clovers and mixture covered 165.500 ha (average yields of 6.2 t/ha) and lucerne only 24.300 ha (average yield of 5.7 t/ha).

Composition and main Species - CROP-SHEETS

Since the 1960s, extensively managed pastures and meadows have declined in abundance due to abandonment, agricultural intensification or afforestation. The problem of fallowing was particularly pressing during the 1970s. The communities mainly affected by abandonment are Arrhenatherum elatius and Bromus erectus grasslands (Moog et al., 2002).

In the Altmarkregion, in old grassland sites (meadows or pastures), the main recorded species are Dactylis glomerata, Festuca pratensis, Lolium perenne, Phleum pratense and Poa pratense (Willner, 1998).

In the Allgäuer Alps (Bayern region), the main plant associations are Lolio-Cynosuretum (with yield of 6.5 t/ha), Festuco-Cynosuretum (yield of 3.4 t/ha) and Nardetum (yield of 3.3 t/ha). Type and frequency of species are influenced by management practices. Species include: Poa trivialis, T. repens, Lolium perenne, Taraxacum officinalis, Phleum pratense, Festuca rubra, Agrostis tenuis, Cynosorus cristatus, T. pratense, Nardus stricta, Potentilla erecta (Spatz, 1994).

Uncultivated grassland sites in north eastern Germany are to a large degree suitable for the cultivation of industrial crops as renewable resources. This is due to the inflow of external water into the area. On lowland moor, native Phalaris arundinacea showed the best adaptation with high yield and good harvesting potential. Miscanthus sinensis, because of its efficient water use, obtained the highest yields on humus covered mineral soils with a low groundwater table (90 cm); its nitrogen requirement is lower than that of Phalaris (Schalitz et al., 2002).

All bred pasture plants can be found as autochthonous species in Germany , usually on old pastures. They include (German National Report, undated):

• Indigenous bred pasture species are Agrostis spp., Alopecurus pratensis , Arrhenatherum elatius , Dactylis glomerata , Festuca arundinacea, F. ovina, F. pratensis and F. rubra , Lolium perenne , Phleum pratense , Poa pratensis, Trisetum flavescens and also the leguminosae Lotus corniculatus, Medicago lupulina, Trifolium hybridum, T. pratense and T. repens .
• Medicago sativa, Trifolium alexandrinum, T. incarnatum and T. resupinatum have wild relatives within the same genera.
• Lolium multiflorum and two species of lucerne ( Medicago arabica and M. x varia ) have become part of the indigenous flora and are found as wild populations of former cultivated plants.

There are still autochthonous grassland areas in Germany ; these are naturally unforested areas or grassland areas resulting from management (forest pasture, clearing and pasture). Both categories are endangered by changes in use (conversion into arable land, afforestation, abandonment/succession), intensification (drainage, fertilization, high stocking density) or strains on the environment (immission, eutrophication). In the 80s, landscape management associations developed in various parts of of the country to join up in 1993 to form a federal association. Grassland management as a relatively cost-effective landscape management and nature conservation tools plays an important role in the associations' objectives; conservation of wet grassland, dry grassland and juniper heathland areas are promoted as part of a varied cultivated landscape (German National Report, undated).

Agronomic practices - GIS

Animal husbandry has always had a major influence on the development of landscapes. Grassland in less favoured areas was mostly formed by grazing sheep and cattle. Changes in agricultural structure make it impossible for small-scale farms to keep up traditional husbandry systems in these areas. Consequently landscapes are no longer being created as a free by-product, and traditional pasture land no longer used for grazing is endangered by shrubs proliferation (Haumann P., 1998).

The history of agriculture and agricultural practices in Germany have been widely influenced by the past pattern of farm inheritance. Generally, in the northern and eastern parts of the country large holdings are found as a result of an inheritance system where the property was not divided but rather passed on to the eldest son. In central and southern Germany , on the other hand, farms were often split among heirs resulting in small holdings with scattered fields.

A well-known area in Germany for sheep keeping is the Swabian Jura in the Federal State of Baden-Württemberg. The Swabian Jura, and with it the Franconian Jura, are the only regions in central Europe where a unique form of a transhumance system developed in the past (Figure 7). However, in contrast to Mediterranean types of transhumance - as for example in Extremadura (Spain) or in Provence (France) - the Swabian/Franconian cannot be traced back to Neolithic times having developed as late as at the end of the 18th century. Traditionally, from late spring until autumn, the shepherds grazed extended lowland areas in the Jura mountains; depending on weather conditions they sometimes started their marches to lowland regions as far away as several hundreds kilometres. Today, transhumance in the Swabian Jura exists only on a very small scale with some 100,000 sheep grazing during summer (Luick, undated).

In the northern federal states of west Germany , grassland is mostly used by grazing whereas in southern states different uses are combined together: grazing, cutting, silage (Kühbauch, 1992).

In 1971, the average rate of nitrogen used on pastures was 100 kg/ha (in Lee, 1982). Agri-environmental schemes as well as the EU agricultural reform have helped to reduce the use of commercial fertilisers per hectare of farmland to well below the original level at the end of the 80s.

References

• Arbeitshilfen für Naturschutz und Landschaftspflege, undated. http://www.uvm.baden-wuert t emberg.de/nafaweb/berichte/pag_02/krt178.htm
• Federal Statistical Office Germany (FSOG), 2002. http://www.destatis.de
• German National Report in Preparation of the 4th International Technical Conference on Plant Genetic Resources (ITCPGR) of FAO July 1995, undated. http://www.genres.de/bmlfao/natber2.htm
• Haumann P., 1998. Biotope conservation with ruminants in Germany : the example of goats on shrub-infested slopes. 2nd LSIRD Conference on Livestock production in the European LFAs, Bray , Ireland . http://www.mluri.sari.ac.uk/livestocksystems/dublin/papers.htm
• Kühbauch W., 1992. Grassland types in Germany and possibilities of their identification by remote sensing. In: Institute for Remote Sensing Applications, 1992. European collaborative programme workshop on grassland classification and mapping. S. Folving and C.M. Girard, eds., JRC and INAPG, Paris, 28-29 April 1992.
• Lee J., 1982. The spatial pattern of grassland production in Europe . Proceedings of the 9^th General Meeting of the European Grassland Federation (Corrall A.J., ed.), "Efficient grassland farming", Reading , September 1982, British Grassland Society.
• Luick R.,undated. Extensive pasture systems in Germany - Realising the value of environmental sustainability. In: http://www.mluri.sari.ac.uk/livestocksystems/nafplio/proceedings/luick/luick.htm
• Moog D., Poschlod P., Kahmen S. and Schreiber K.-F., 2002 .Comparison of species composition between different grassland management treatments after 25 years. Applied Vegetation Science 5: 99-106.
• Paulsch A., 2003. Applying the Ecosystem Approach in High-Mountain Ecosystems in Germany : Experiences with the Alpine Convention. BfN - Skripten 76 .
• Peters K. J., 1996. Alternative utilization of small ruminants the case of Germany . In: REU Technical Series 50: Sheep and Goat Production in Central and Eastern European: 272-280
• Prieler S. et al . 1998. Three Scenarios for Land-Use Change: A Case Study in Central Europe . International Institute for applied systems analysis, Austria . http://www.iiasa.ac.at/Publications/Catalog/
• Schalitz G., Fechner M., Behrendt A. and Robowsky K.D. 2002. Cultivation of industrial crops as a renewable resource on lowland moors. In: Lowland grasslands of Europe : utilization and development, Fisher and Frankow-Lindberg (eds.), FAO/CIHEAM, REU Technical Series No.64, 123-126.
• Spatz G., 1994 Vegetationsdynamik von Alpweide-Gesellschaften in Abhängigkeit von der Bewirtschaftung, insbesonders der Nährstoffversorgung im Boden. Characterization of meadows in mountainous areas dairy cows in the mountains. REUR Technical series 30: 77-83, FAO.
• Willner E., 1998 Collecting activities in Germany , 1995-96. In: ECP/GR. Report of a Working Group on Forages, 1997. Sixth meeting, 6-8 March 1997, Norway . Maggioni L. et al. (eds.), IPGRI: 111.