PHENOLOGICAL CROP CALENDAR

Agriculture practices calendar

In dry areas, soil cultivation is similar to the cultivation for winter wheat. Stubble breaking (ploughing) is done in spring. If necessary, second or third cultivation is applied by duckfoot or diskharrow. The main aim of the second and third cultivation is to save soil moisture in dry areas. For a good yield, barley should be sown early in either winter or spring cultivations. For winter barley, sowing date could be October and December depending on climatic conditions of the agricultural regions. For spring sowing, barley is planted before the temperature fallen down 10°C. Seed density should be 450-550 seed/m² for winter barley, 500-600 seed/m² for spring barley depending on the kernels. Basically, barley is sown in 3-4 cm depth. Sowing have been done by drill or sprinkling (broadcasting).

If there is no restrict about soil water, 0.8-1.0 kg/ha N, 0.4-0.6 kg/ha P₂O₅, and 0.3-0.6 kg/ha K₂O might be applied by fertilizing. If precipitation is low, these amounts can be reduced. All P₂O₅ is given in sowing, and Nitrogen is applied in sowing and shooting periods. Too much nitrogen is not required for malt barley.

Planting:

Cultural practices for barley are similar to that of wheat and oats. All weed growth should be killed in preparation of a seedbed, and manures or fertilizer incorporated in the rooting zone below 3 cm. The seed should be planted by drilling to a depth of about 5-cm in rows 20 cm apart. Wherever rains are uncertain at planting time, hand planting in rows is acceptable, and is superior to broadcasting. Drilling seed in moist soil insures prompt germination and seedling establishment. For row planting, 80 kg of seed per hectare is sufficient; but for broadcast planting the seed requirement should be increased to as much as 120 kg/ha. (NOTE: No recommendations are made on treating seed before planting, since such treatments are poisonous to man when surplus seed is eaten; and must follow in-country regulations.)

Fertilizing:

Application for winter barley is the same as wheat.

Weed Control:

Barley is not cultivated for weed control, except on very weedy land where undue reliance must not be placed on competition from barley plants to subdue weeds. Hand-pulling of aggressive weeds is necessary on weedy fields, particularly where soil moisture may be a limiting factor in growth, since weeds quickly exhaust moisture supplies. Weed removal by pulling, hoeing, or by herbicide application should be done while weeds are small, before serious damage to barley plants has occurred. The herbicide selected should be one that experience has demonstrated to be effective in killing the weed species without injury to barley.

Disease Control:

Several diseases are known to reduce the production of barley. Powdery mildew occurs wherever barley is grown and often causes large losses in production Leaf rust is also important, but stem rust is not as important on barley as on wheat. In many areas, barley matures early and escapes from infection with the rust fungi. The disease, scald, occurs in the cooler climates. There are three smut diseases, which infect the spikes causing yield reductions, and viruses, which reduce plant vigour and winter survival. Leaf spotting and leaf blotching diseases are usually present on barley. The growing of resistant varieties is the most effective and economical method for controlling barley diseases. Selections or varieties are known which are resistant to these diseases. The use of disease free seed and cultural practices that assure vigorous plant growth will reduce losses. (Note: Fungicides are available for reducing losses from most of the barley diseases. No recommendations are made for using fungicide because such fungicides may be poisonous to man and their use must follow the in-country regulations.)

Insect Control:

Several insects feed on barley. The greenbug aphid causes plants in small areas in fields to become stunted and non-productive. Other aphids and leafhoppers are known to transmit virus diseases. There are varieties resistant to the greenbug and to most of the viruses transmitted by insects. The Hessian fly, which infests fall-planted wheat also, infests fall-planted barley. Losses from the Hessian fly can be avoided by delaying the planting until the weather is cooler. The cereal leaf beetle attacks barley in many countries in Southern Europe, North Africa, and in a few areas in North America. Sources of resistance to this insect have not yet been identified

Harvest:

The full yield of grain will have been achieved when the kernels have reached the dough stage, and the crop begins to turn from green to golden yellow. Full ripening occurs when the grain has dried to moisture content of about 12%. Barley like wheat can suffer from bird damage, some varieties being more heavily attacked than others. Field curing is generally practical. Harvest may be by hand with sickles or by machines. Combined harvesting-threshing by machine is quite feasible with dry grain, but fairly large areas are needed to make this practice economically desirable, particularly where abundant hand labor is available.

Irrigation practices

Barley are generally irrigated for the all regions where water available. Shooting and flowering period is critical for barley irrigation. Flood irrigation is common.

Pest and disease risk

The diseases of barley can be summarized as Ustilago spp., Helminthosporium spp., Septoria spp., Puccinia spp., Erysiphe spp. Fusarium spp. and other diseases that are common for wheat. Some information about barley diseases can summarized as follows:

Crop rotation

Barley requires the soil with abundant plant nutrients in available forms. For this reason, the soil conditions after previous plant is important. Barley grows well after sugar beets and legumes. On the other hand, this might not be convenient for malt barley, if previous plant leaves so much nitrogen in the soil. Generally, barley is sown consecutively or after another cereals in Turkey. In dry areas, fallow + barley system is common.